The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse stands as a testament to human ingenuity and perseverance against the relentless forces of nature. Situated on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, it has served as a vital navigational aid, guiding ships safely past the treacherous Diamond Shoals for over two centuries. Its history is a compelling narrative of construction, adaptation, relocation, and preservation.
Early Years and Initial Construction (1794-1870)
The story begins in 1794 when Congress recognized the significant threat posed to Atlantic shipping by the Diamond Shoals, a dangerous twelve-mile long sandbar formed by the collision of the Gulf Stream and the Virginia Drift. This prompted the authorization for the construction of a lighthouse at Cape Hatteras.
However, construction was delayed until 1799, and the first lighthouse was finally lit in October 1803. Unfortunately, this initial structure proved inadequate. Its short height, the unpainted sandstone that blended with the surroundings, and a weak signal made it ineffective in warning ships of the impending danger. Poor construction and maintenance further compounded the problems.
In 1853, the Lighthouse Board decided to enhance the lighthouse by adding 60 feet to its height, bringing it to a total of 150 feet. The extended tower was painted red on top of white to increase its visibility during the day. A first-order Fresnel lens was installed, utilizing both refraction and reflection to create a stronger beam.
By the 1860s, extensive repairs were needed, leading Congress to allocate funds for a completely new lighthouse. This presented a unique challenge due to the high groundwater levels on the Outer Banks. Dexter Stetson, the foreman, ingeniously employed a "floating foundation," layering 6-foot x 12-foot yellow pine timbers crossways in the foundation pit below the water table, topped with granite plinths.
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The new lighthouse was illuminated on December 16, 1870, and the original 1803 lighthouse was demolished in February 1871. In 1873, the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse received its iconic black and white stripe daymark pattern.
Design and Construction Details
The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse is a conical brick structure rising from an octagon-shaped brick and granite base, crowned with an iron and glass lantern. It holds the distinction of being the tallest brick lighthouse in the United States, measuring 198.49 feet from the bottom of the foundation to the pinnacle. This height was crucial to extend the reach of the light-beam from its low-lying beach location.
The lighthouse's robust construction features exterior and interior brick walls, connected by interstitial walls resembling the spokes of a wheel. Approximately 1,250,000 bricks were ordered from a Baltimore firm, manufactured at a kiln on the James River in Virginia. The exact number of bricks used in the construction is unknown.
The original foundation was approximately 7-½ feet deep and comprised 6"x12"x12' crossed yellow pine timbers submerged in water, topped with granite boulders cemented together.
The tapered tower above the granite and brick base is double-walled, with 12 hidden, full-length vertical ribs connecting the two walls. These ribs provide stiffness, similar to the flying buttresses in gothic cathedrals, maintaining the tower's rigidity and keeping the center of gravity low. At its base, the outer wall is 46-3/4" thick, and the inner wall is 20" thick. The two walls merge 134' 4" above the ground. The outer wall's diameter at the base is 32' 5-1/2", and at the bottom of the gallery brackets, it is 17' 2". The stairwell's inside diameter remains constant at 11' 6" from top to bottom.
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Black slate and white marble quarry tile were used on most floors. The stairs and other metal components are made of cast, rolled, or drawn iron. Bronze was used for demanding situations like the lantern framework. The roof is copper, lined with tin, and the lightning rod is bronze with a platinum-clad tip.
Dexter Stetson, the Superintendent of Construction appointed by the Lighthouse Board, hired and trained nearly 100 local laborers, who were paid $1.50 a day.
Technological Advancements in Illumination
The original light source consisted of Argand style lamps with parabolic reflectors. In 1839, Cape Hatteras was equipped with eighteen 14” reflectors, upgraded to fifteen 21” reflectors by 1849.
The first-order Fresnel lens, installed in 1854, initially burned whale oil. However, due to the scarcity of sperm whales, the US Lighthouse Service sought alternative fuels. By 1880, whale oil was replaced by lard oil and mineral oil (kerosene). A brief experiment with porpoise oil proved unsuccessful.
From 1913 to 1934, the lighthouse used an incandescent oil vapor (IOV) lamp, which utilized pressurized kerosene in a mantle. This system, along with the Fresnel lens, produced a powerful beam.
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The Fresnel lens itself was a marvel of engineering. It consisted of over 1,000 prisms and approximately 2,500 lb. of glass and bronze, standing 12 feet tall. Triangular prisms projected light into a continuous 360-degree beam, and 24 bulls-eye lenses provided the flashes.
The original lens assembly rotated on a chariot at ½ rpm, powered by three 150-pound iron weights suspended on a cable. The cable was wound around a drum in a clockwork mechanism, similar to a grandfather clock. Each morning, the weights were manually cranked to the top and released at dusk, causing the lens to rotate. The speed of rotation was adjustable via a fan governor.
In 1934, a 36-inch airport beacon was installed. Two separate units, similar to searchlights, were mounted side by side, facing in opposite directions, and rotated by an electric motor. A photocell automatically turned the light on at sunset and off at dawn. Each 1,000-watt bulb produced an 800,000-candlepower beam focused by parabolic reflectors.
The beacon's official range is 24 nautical miles (a nautical mile is 6,080 feet).
Life at the Lighthouse: Keepers and Their Duties
The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse was staffed by a Principal Keeper and two Assistant Keepers. They didn't reside in the lighthouse but stayed in the watch room at the top of the tower when on duty. The Lighthouse Board provided housing, staple foods, medicine, and a salary of up to $800 per year.
The keepers were responsible for maintenance, repairs, and administrative tasks. Each keeper stood a four-hour watch during the night, with the times alternating daily.
The two Assistant Keepers and their families lived in the Double Keepers’ Quarters, built in 1854.
Challenges of Erosion and the Move (1935-1999)
Due to severe beach erosion, the Bureau of Lighthouses decommissioned the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse in 1935. The beacon was temporarily moved to a skeletal steel tower until 1950.
On November 9, 1937, the Cape Hatteras Light Station was transferred to the National Park Service (NPS).
On January 23, 1950, the Coast Guard returned the beacon (250,000 candlepower) to the lighthouse, as the beach had naturally rebuilt over the years. In 1972, the beacon's power was increased to 800,000 candlepower.
From the 1960s to the 1980s, numerous efforts were undertaken to stabilize the beach in front of the lighthouse, which was once again threatened by erosion.
In 1999, after extensive study and debate, the Cape Hatteras Light Station was moved 2,900 feet inland over a period of 23 days to its current location, 1,500 feet from the seashore, its original distance from the sea.
Preservation and Legacy
In 1936, the 1870 lighthouse was turned over to the National Park Service. Currently, under a Special Use Agreement, the US Coast Guard maintains the beacon, while the NPS is responsible for the building itself.
The Cape Hatteras Light Station, comprising seven historic structures, was successfully relocated in 1999. The entire station was moved to a new site, maintaining the spatial and elevational relationship of the historic buildings and cisterns to each other, exactly as they were at the original site.
The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse stands not only as a vital aid to navigation but also as a symbol of resilience, adaptation, and the ongoing commitment to preserving our nation's history. Its story is a reminder of the constant battle between humanity and the forces of nature, and the enduring power of human ingenuity to overcome seemingly insurmountable challenges.
Timeline of Key Events
- 1794: Congress authorizes construction of a lighthouse at Cape Hatteras.
- 1803: The first lighthouse is completed.
- 1853: The tower is raised to 150 feet and fitted with a first-order Fresnel lens.
- 1870: Construction of the new lighthouse is completed.
- 1871: The 1803 lighthouse is demolished.
- 1873: The lighthouse receives its famous black and white stripe daymark pattern.
- 1935: The lighthouse is decommissioned due to erosion.
- 1937: Ownership is transferred to the National Park Service (NPS).
- 1950: The beacon is returned to the lighthouse.
- 1966: Cape Hatteras National Seashore is established.
- 1972: An 800,000-candlepower beacon is installed.
- 1980: Experimental artificial sea grass is placed on the shoreline.
- 1999: The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse is successfully moved to its new location.
Restoration and Missing Elements
Much of the exposed ironwork of the lower gallery, some of the stairs and all their anchor bolts, and the windows have been replaced. The lantern room glass has been replaced many times, and the roof was rebuilt in 1992.
Missing elements include the cast iron casement window trim, the weight set and its hardware, a cabinet, a small desk, and a coal stove that were once present in the watch room. Roller curtains that once kept the sun's rays out of the lens during the day are also gone. Inner wood doors with glass lights were removed from the top and bottom entries, along with glass transoms at the bottom. Parts of the gearbox and lens disappeared during WWII, along with the keepers’ tools. The vandalized Fresnel lens was removed in 1949 and stored. In October 2006, the lens’ pedestal and clockwork assembly were removed.
The Sand Pit
The sand pit, now covered with plastic netting and a steel mesh floor for NPS visitor safety, was originally designed as a safety feature. It was intended to cushion the fall of the weight cable of the clockwork mechanism if it parted, preventing damage to the slate and marble floor. The weight set could also be lowered into the pit for maintenance and repairs.