Imagine marching alongside the legions of ancient Rome, feeling the sun on your back and the weight of armor on your shoulders. The Roman soldiers were known for their discipline, endurance, and ability to march vast distances. But what kept them fueled? Their diet was designed not just for sustenance but for the rigors of constant movement, long campaigns, and unpredictable supplies. Understanding the dietary habits of Roman soldiers offers a glimpse into the logistical prowess and the daily lives of those who built and maintained one of history's most formidable empires.
The Daily Bread: Grains and Hardtack
Grains formed the foundation of the Roman soldiers’ diet. Wheat was the most common grain, used to make bread, porridge, and other food staples. Soldiers would typically carry rations of hardtack biscuits, called “buccellatum” or “panis militaris,” which were made by baking flour, water, and sometimes salt into durable, long-lasting biscuits. These biscuits were an essential source of sustenance during long campaigns or when fresh supplies were scarce.
At the heart of the Roman soldier’s diet was buccelatum, or hardtack. Known for its nearly indestructible nature, hardtack was a dense, unleavened bread made from basic ingredients that could last for months if stored properly. The mention of buccelatum appears in the Historia Augusta, which chronicled various aspects of Roman life, including the provisioning of the army. Hardtack has held a special place in military history across different cultures and eras, from the Romans to 18th-century sailors and even soldiers in the American Civil War.
Legions had mobile bread ovens, called “furciferi,” that traveled with them, enabling the troops to bake fresh bread on the spot. It was a dense, coarse loaf, lacking the airy texture of modern bread. Soldiers often dunked it in wine or broth to soften it before consumption.
Recipe for Roman Hardtack (Buccellatum)
A basic recipe for recreating buccellatum involves:
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- Preheating your oven to 375°F (190°C).
- Mixing flour and salt in a bowl.
- Adding olive oil and enough water to create a dense, dry dough.
- Rolling the dough out to about ½-inch thickness and cutting into squares.
- Placing the pieces on a baking sheet and prick with a fork to avoid bubbles.
- Baking for 30-40 minutes until hard and dry.
- Letting cool completely.
Roman hardtack was intentionally very hard, meant for long-term storage rather than immediate consumption.
Protein Power: Meat, Cheese, and Legumes
Meat was an essential part of the Roman legionaries’ diet, providing them with much-needed protein and strength. The soldiers would consume various types of meat, including beef, pork, lamb, and poultry. However, it’s worth noting that meat was not an everyday luxury, and soldiers primarily relied on other food sources due to logistical challenges. When available, meat would be roasted or boiled, and it often found its way into stews and soups. Meat played a crucial role in providing protein and strength to the Roman armies.
Livestock, such as cattle and sheep, were raised and slaughtered specifically to feed the troops. Fresh meat was a prized addition to their meals, although it wasn’t always readily available, especially during extended military campaigns. To preserve meat, soldiers would often salt or smoke it, creating preserved meats that could sustain them for longer periods. Salt pork was another staple, offering protein and fat that could be stored for long periods. These rations were easy to carry, calorie-dense, and nutritionally balanced to support the rigorous physical demands of a soldier’s lifestyle.
Dairy products were also a significant component of the Roman soldiers’ diet. Cheese, made from cow’s milk or occasionally sheep or goat milk, was a valuable source of protein and fat. It provided sustenance and could be stored for extended periods without spoiling, making it an ideal food item for the armies on the move. Soldiers would consume cheese on its own or incorporate it into various dishes to enhance flavor and nutritional value.
Legumes played a significant role in the Roman legionaries’ diet as they provided a good source of plant-based protein. Soldiers would consume beans, lentils, and chickpeas, which were easily stored and transported. Legumes were often cooked into stews or combined with grains to create a filling and nutritious meal for the troops. Legumes were not only a source of sustenance but also aided in maintaining soldiers’ energy levels and overall well-being. The Romans knew several varieties of chickpea, such as venus, ram, and punic. They were either cooked down into a broth or roasted as a snack.
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Complementary Provisions: Vegetables, Fruits and Flavorings
To maintain a balanced diet, Roman soldiers consumed vegetables alongside their other food. Some common vegetables in their diet included onions, leeks, garlic, cabbage, carrots, and turnips. These vegetables were versatile and could be eaten raw, boiled, or included in various dishes. They provided essential vitamins and minerals, helping to keep the soldiers healthy and combat-ready.
Fruit was eaten fresh when in season, and dried or preserved over winter. Popular fruits included apples, pears, figs, grapes, quinces, citron, strawberries, blackberries, elderberries, currants, damson plums, dates, melons, rose hips and pomegranates. Less common fruits were the more exotic azeroles and medlars. Cherries and apricots, both introduced in the 1st century BC, were popular. Peaches were introduced in the 1st century AD from Persia. Although known to the ancient Romans, lemons were not cultivated in Italy until the Principate.
The ancient Romans ate walnuts, almonds, pistachios, chestnuts, hazelnuts (filberts), pine nuts, and sesame seeds, which they sometimes pulverized to thicken spiced, sweet wine sauces for roast meat and fowl to serve on the side or over the meat as a glaze. Nuts were also used in savoury pesto-like sauces for cold cuts.
Garum was the distinctive fish sauce of ancient Rome. It was used as a seasoning, in place of salt; as a table condiment; and as a sauce.
Hydration and Sustenance: Wine and Posca
Wine played a vital role in the daily lives of Roman soldiers. Wine was a prevalent part of the Roman soldier’s diet. It served as a source of hydration, especially when water sources were questionable, and provided some nutritional value. Soldiers would typically drink diluted wine, mixing it with water to prevent intoxication and to stretch their supplies further. It was also a way to kill bacteria in water, ensuring a safer option for consumption.
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In this case, we followed the directions of Dioscorides for a posca helpful for the stomach and queasiness, which is also particularly good: vinegar diluted in water with a bit of pennyroyal, which you can substitute with mint.
Food Preparation and Dining
Soldiers used basic culinary equipment, including cooking pots, and cooked for themselves in their barrack rooms, where, at Vindolanda, there is evidence for hearths. Paterae (iron pans) had thick rings on their bases to stop the contents burning during cooking. The handles had a looped end, so that soldiers could hang them from their marching kits. On the march, soldiers usually carried their equipment on a furca, forked stick. The kit included a pan for cooking and eating, a billy can, a string bag in which to put a drinks container and a leather bag in which to store three days grain or any foraged food.
A Roman kitchen usually had a raised hearth set against a wall and edged with a curb to hold in the hot charcoal. This would reach waist height, so that cooking could be done while standing. A gridiron, a large iron stand, supported the pots and pans. Some of the praetorium buildings in the early wooden forts at Vindolanda had a water supply piped to them through wooden water pipes.
Variations in Diet
It’s important to note that the availability and quality of food varied depending on the region, the rank of the soldier, and the time period. Higher-ranking officials and officers often had access to a wider variety of foods, while lower-ranking soldiers had a more limited diet.
Roman Soldier Snack Board
This Roman Soldier Snack Board recreates the essential provisions of the Roman army, featuring buccelatum (hardtack), salt pork, moretum (a cheese spread with herbs and salt pork), dried fruits, hard cheese, and olives.
Moretum Instructions:
In a bowl, combine ricotta cheese, parsley, celery seed, and salt pork bits. Stir until well mixed.
Serving Suggestions: To keep the board authentic, include figs, olives, and hard cheese.