Weight Limit is a series that examines the rise of weight loss drugs like Wegovy and how they impact young people. In this installment, see the history of diet culture from Ancient Greece to Ozempic. With a new year comes an opportunity to start fresh and, for some Americans, that means losing weight. According to a Forbes survey on new year’s resolutions, 48% of respondents reported they wanted to improve their fitness, 34% wanted to lose weight, and 32% wanted to improve their diet. Resolutions related to appearance and health outweighed several other wellness goals, such as spending time with loved ones (25%), improving work-life balance (7%), and meditating more regularly (5%). In 2024, these resolutions have been bolstered by the emergence of quick weight loss drugs, like Ozempic, a drug intended for adults with Type 2 diabetes that has been harnessed for its weight loss side effects. Some celebrities have spoken openly about using Ozempic to lose weight and the drug has exploded in popularity among the public. Shortages of the drug are expected throughout 2024.
Over the past few years, culture commentators have noticed a trend toward ultra-thinness among celebrities like Kim Kardashian right on the heels of the "slim-thick" era of the 2010s, when BBLs and waist trainers reigned. This itself comes after the super thin supermodel era of the 1990s, showing that weight and body size trends have always vacillated - and the history of dieting is rife with political, social and economic influences.
A Historical Perspective on Dieting
Dieting has existed for centuries, at least since Ancient Greece, where dieting emerged as a holistic approach to physical and mental health. But the conception of dieting as primarily a way to lose weight or change one’s body first appeared in the 19th century. Historians trace the contemporary Western relationship between dieting and weight loss to 1863 when English writer William Banting authored “A Letter on Corpulence.” However, Banting didn’t have a background in health or medicine. His writing came from his own struggles with his weight. At age 64, Banting was 5’5” and weighed 202 pounds. When he started to lose his hearing, Banting turned to surgeon William Harvey. Harvey had recently attended a lecture in Paris about the connection between the liver and diabetes, and had since been investigating how sugar, fats, and starches influenced the body. When a distressed Banting asked for solutions to weight loss, Harvey recommended that he cut out “bread, butter, milk, sugar, beer and potatoes and to live on mainly animal protein, fruit and non-starchy vegetables.” About nine months later, Banting had lost 35 pounds and his quality of life had significantly improved. He then self-published “A Letter on Corpulence” detailing his journey and gave copies away for free.
Banting’s published ideas primarily appealed to men who had traded work in the field for sedentary desk jobs, thanks to industrialization. These men feared that their bodies were becoming too soft and feminine, and weight loss became a way to reclaim their masculinity. Banting indeed targeted “A Letter on Corpulence” to the growing white male middle class, who prized self-control, education, and morality.
On the other hand, the patriarchal society of the 1830s perceived women as emotional and lacking self-control, and therefore not built for the rigors of dieting. Beauty standards of the time also did not prioritize thinness; rather, plumpness was associated with traits like wealth, motherhood, and sexual aptitude.
Read also: The Hoxsey Diet
It wasn’t until the 1890s when diet advice began appearing in American women’s magazines, when societal beauty standards around the female body were slowly shifting away from the dominant hourglass figure of the 19th century. The development of scientific racism, a “pseudoscientific” approach used to prove the supposed superiority of the white race, partially relied on anti-fatness. Black women were characterized by “presumed inability to control” their consumptions. Not only did this shame Black people and their bodies, but it also encouraged white women to begin dieting as a way to differentiate themselves from stereotypes of Black women. Body size became another battleground for racialized and gendered ideals, and the roaring twenties pushed dieting into the spotlight.
The “ideal” female body type continued to evolve in the early 20th century. By the 1920s, following World War I, social activities that had once been overseen in the home - like dating - became public. New technology like movies and radio meant that trends could spread nationally - such as the “flapper” look for women. “Flappers” embraced a fiercely modern look, idealizing a thin, youthful, and flat-chested body type. They rejected rigid gender roles by wearing knee-length skirts (shockingly short for the time), cutting their hair, exposing skin, smoking in public, and attending jazz clubs. Suddenly, while plumpness had previously been associated with wealth and sexuality, thinness now reigned supreme. Only women who weren’t desperate for food had the privilege of restricting their consumption for aesthetics, so the line of thinking went. As the demand for weight loss increased, so did the strategies to achieve this - like calorie counting, which had originated as a food rationing technique during World War I. In 1918, Dr. Lulu Hunt Peters, an American physician, popularized the concept of calorie counting for weight loss in her book, Diet & Health: With Key to the Calories. “In war time it is a crime to hoard food,” wrote Dr. Hunt Peters. “Yet there are hundreds of thousands of individuals all over America who are hoarding food…stored away in their own anatomy.” Dr. Peters’ work characterized fat people as unpatriotic threats to the future of the United States. This perception linked weight to behaviors and values, just as often happened with race, gender and class.
The diet industry exploded after World War II. This was due, in part, to advancements in food and advertising technology as well as increasing social, economic, and political pressures to conform to ideal standards of citizenship, femininity, and the nuclear family. At the time, the ideal American woman, as portrayed by pop culture, happily married a man, had children, and managed the suburban home. The image of the ideal American family relied on an idealized aesthetic of domesticity. Thus, housewives were particularly vulnerable to the diet industry, which often pushed new and more harmful tactics. American women began using new methods to diet, advanced by advertisers. For example, amphetamines, like Benzedrine, which were originally used by soldiers to treat combat stress reaction (now known as PTSD), were increasingly marketed to women as diet pills. In 1967, one study found that patients at weight loss clinics spent $120 million on diet pills alone. Fad diets, including the grapefruit diet and the cabbage soup diet, also represented the desire for an easy dieting fix. In addition, brick and mortar dieting facilities began cropping up in the 1940s and 1950s. These facilities, often called reducing salons, had “reducing machines” designed to shape and slim one’s body.
Weight Watchers shifted dieting from a fad to a lifestyle change. Amid this rejection of the status quo, the fat acceptance and fat liberation movements took root, addressing the social, political, and economic systems that create barriers for fat people. Fat liberationists contested anti-fat bias in employment and organized events such as the Fat-In in Central Park. Fat Black women formed the cornerstone of these movements. Margaret K. Bass wrote “On Being a Fat Black Girl in a Fat-Hating Culture” (2011) to reflect on her experience growing up in the 1950s and 1960s: “No one prepared me for living life as a fat person.” Her account of harassment, bullying, and pressure to lose weight describes the struggles of living as a fat Black girl living in an anti-fat world. Johnnie Tillmon, a social welfare activist, wrote, “I’m a woman. I’m a Black woman. I’m a poor woman. I’m a fat woman. I’m a middle-aged woman. And I’m on welfare. In this country, if you’re any one of those things you count less as a human being. If you’re all those things, you don’t count at all. Except as a statistic.”
Despite the growing fat acceptance movements, dieting pressures grew in the 1970s and 80s. Exercise classes became increasingly popular for individuals hoping to slim down. American actress Jane Fonda starred in an at-home workout video that sold 17 million copies between 1982 and 1985. At the same time, diet foods became increasingly popular for American consumers. Lean Cuisine (created in 1981) and Diet Coke (created in 1982) offered low-fat, low-sugar, and low-calorie options. The accessibility of exercise options and diet foods made it much easier for the average American to participate in diet culture.
Read also: Walnut Keto Guide
The Height of Diet Culture: 1990s Trends
The 1990s marked a significant era in the evolution of diet culture, characterized by a fervent pursuit of thinness fueled by media influence and the proliferation of fad diets. This decade saw an explosion of weight loss trends, many of which have since been debunked as ineffective or even harmful.
Media Influence and the "Waif" Look
In the 1990s and 2000s, an era of tabloids, paparazzi walks, and reality television provided Americans with myriad ways to observe, admire, and imitate the bodies of thin women. The “waif” and “heroin chic” aesthetics, popularized by British model Kate Moss, encouraged an androgynous and emaciated body as the beauty ideal. The hypervisibility of celebrities like Paris Hilton and Britney Spears opened up conversation about the size of these women’s bodies. While these conversations certainly increased pressures to conform to a thin body type, this media landscape also increased awareness about eating disorders, particularly anorexia and bulimia.
Fat-Free Mania
One of the most defining characteristics of 90s diet culture was the obsession with fat-free products. Snack aisles were lined with neon-colored, fruit-flavored treats that were somehow marketed as healthy. This era was all about low fat, no fat. The prevailing belief was that all fat was bad, leading to the creation of countless fat-free snacks and low-fat meal replacement drinks. Even McDonald's jumped on the bandwagon, releasing the "McLean," a low-fat burger that ultimately didn't stick around.
Popular Diets of the Decade
The 1990s were filled with diet trends and weight loss fads. Several diets gained immense popularity during this time, including:
- The Atkins Diet: This high-protein, high-fat, low-carb diet, popularized by Dr. Robert Atkins, required followers to cut out a lot of foods in order to fit these macros. Although Dr. Atkins developed the diet back in the ‘60s, it was popularised in the ‘90s with the release of his infamous book “Dr. Atkins’ New Diet Revolution”. The BBC reported in 2003 that 7% of men and 10% of women had tried the diet before, despite its strict nature.
- The Zone Diet: The Zone Diet focused on balancing macronutrient intake, emphasizing a specific ratio of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in each meal.
- Sugar Busters: The general idea of this diet seems to be relatively healthy, since it encourages against eating processed foods, but you can eat all the fruit and veg, lean red meat and dairy products that you want- as long as they don’t have any added sugar. HOWEVER, the premise of this diet is ridiculous. It encourages you not to raise your insulin levels, because insulin makes you fat.
- The Cabbage Soup Diet: Believe it or not, this diet consists of cabbage soup! Luckily it wasn’t completely limited to cabbage soup, foods varied depending on the day of the week, to include fruit and other veg, and even red meat for one day a week. The diet focused on rapid weight loss by encouraging followers to consume around 1000kcals per day. This isn’t the most sustainable way to lose weight, because it’s likely that you won’t be losing fat, but water.
- Liquid Diets: The ‘90s saw the meal-replacement shake boom with the US seeing a 28% increase in sales in 1990 alone. Celebrity faces were used to push the most popular meal replacement shakes, which promised weight-loss by having one shake for breakfast, one for lunch and “a proper dinner” according to a 1991 ad.
- Blood Type Diet: The idea behind it is that each blood type is better suited towards a certain type of diet. Popularised by Dr. Peter D’Adamo in his book “Eat Right 4 Your Type” the diet doesn’t actually have much evidence backing it.
Other '90s Trends
- Diet Pills: I just remember diet pills were HUGE there for a while. You could hardly watch TV without seeing commercials for diet pills, especially during the trashy daytime talk shows.
- Rollerblading: In ‘90s we graduated from the roller-skates of the 80s, to the much more sophisticated roller-blades, which just had one line of wheels instead of two sets of two…making balance more difficult but elevating any ‘90s look. Whether you just needed a quick way to get around, or you thought you had a chance at becoming a pro, rollerblades were on all of our Christmas lists at one point.
The Dark Side of Diet Culture
Growing up in the 90s, many of us were unwittingly steeped in a toxic diet culture. From ultra-skinny models gracing the covers of magazines to the relentless promotion of fad diets, the message was clear; thinner is better, and self-worth is tied to appearance. Many internalized the belief that we needed to look a certain way to be accepted and valued. This led to a range of issues, from unhealthy eating habits to a distorted body image. The constant comparison with an unrealistic ideal left little room for self-love or appreciation of our unique bodies.
Read also: Weight Loss with Low-FODMAP
A Shift Towards Body Positivity and Neutrality
As some Americans became dissatisfied with pressures to diet and lose weight, they sought out new ways of viewing their bodies. Body positivity and body neutrality have grown in popularity over recent years. Additionally, fat studies scholars have begun questioning the efficacy of some measures of health, such as the use of the Body Mass Index (BMI). Recently, fat activists won a major victory when New York Mayor Eric Adams banned discrimination based on weight in May 2023. Critics state that fat liberation movements are promoting unhealthy behaviors. In response, activists encourage people to understand anti-fatness as a system of oppression that negatively impacts one’s physical, mental, and social well-being.
Unlearning Toxic Conditioning
Now, in an age that is slowly but surely embracing body positivity and diversity, we find ourselves on a path of unlearning. Social media, while still a double-edged sword, has given rise to movements that celebrate all body types and challenge traditional beauty norms. Some influencers and everyday people alike are advocating for self-love and body acceptance. We have to be proactive of who are kids are following and what ‘advice” these celebrities and influencers are pushing on them. We are all individuals, bio-individuality. It is still an almost daily practice I have to do, it’s just like learning push ups and getting stronger, you can’t do 1 or 2 push ups once a week and expect to get stronger and better and push ups, you can’t only run 1 mile once a week and be ready to run a full marathon. Unlearning decades of toxic conditioning isn’t easy, but it’s a crucial journey.
The ‘90s Are Back, But Should Diet Culture Be?
The ‘90s are back. In fashion, patterned skirts, spaghetti strap tanks and kitten heels are cool again. There’s one ‘90s trend making a not so stylish return - diet culture. Today’s influencers are indulging in green powders and carnivore diets, and Pilates is becoming more popular than traditional yoga. Starting as a trend among celebrities in the ‘90s, Pilates has proven to be a low-impact way to work out and improve your metabolism. This “trend” has been taken up by particularly Gen Z women who find value in how Pilates incorporates a “mind-body” connection. Pilates has been endorsed by celebrities like Kendall Jenner and Bella Hadid, along with boasting is more than just Pilates; it’s a cultural shift toward reliving the trends that made the ‘90s iconic.
The Dangers of Quick Fixes
This push of unrealistic expectations forces people to find short-term solutions that won’t serve them in the future. Adding green powder to your diet won’t instantly make you lose weight, and adopting a keto diet can take several months to see any progress. But influencers appear to have never looked better, often thanks to Photoshop, steroid use or medical treatments like Ozempic, which makes this whole weight loss phenomenon pretty misleading. The rise of Ozempic exemplifies how social media expectations market a solution for a problem that doesn’t exist. Ozempic was originally intended for managing Type 2 diabetes, but it is now part of a vain weight loss conversation. It is a great tool to effectively assist in weight loss, but its off-label use for quick results poses an ethical issue and health risk.
The revival of ‘90s-inspired trends should be taken with caution. While it can be enabling to see people take an interest in overall health, we must be mindful of not chasing quick fixes and instead focus on long-term practices that promote our overall well-being.