Compression garments, including compression tops, have become increasingly popular among athletes and fitness enthusiasts over the last three decades. These garments apply mechanical pressure to the body, potentially offering physiological, biomechanical, performance, and perceptual benefits for individuals during exercise and recovery. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the effects of compression tops, examining the current evidence base, associated outcome measures, and recommendations for future research.
What are Compression Tops?
Compression tops are designed to fit tightly against the skin, applying gentle and consistent pressure to the muscles of the upper body. Most compression clothing is made from a blend of nylon or polyester and elastane (spandex). These garments are available for various body parts, including calves, forearms, and entire suits.
The Origins of Compression Clothing
Compression garments didn’t start in sport. They were originally used in medical settings to improve blood flow in patients recovering from surgery or with circulation issues such as varicose veins. Medical studies involving compression garments were originally designed to study effects on blood flow in patients with vascular disease. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, athletes, scientists and sports brands began experimenting with compression wear in training and competition. Then, by the 2010s, compression wear wasn’t just for athletes - it had become a fashion statement.
Potential Benefits of Compression Tops
Compression tops are touted to provide a range of benefits, including:
- Improved blood circulation
- Reduced blood lactate buildup
- Muscle support
- Skin protection
- Body temperature maintenance
- Reduced muscle oscillation and impact during exercise
- Enhanced body awareness
Research Overview
A systematic scoping review was carried out in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) and was registered with the Open Science Framework (registration: osf.io/p75 × 8). A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and CINAHL Complete) was performed from the earliest record to 1 June, 2020. An updated search of the literature was completed on 27 December, 2020. All study designs were included. The literature search identified 974 articles, with five studies identified through a manual search of article reference lists. Following the removal of duplicates and screening of abstracts, 645 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility, with 183 articles included in the qualitative synthesis.
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From the 183 studies included in the review, performance and muscle function outcomes were assessed in 114 studies (62%), biomechanical and neuromuscular outcomes were assessed in 59 (32%), blood and saliva markers were assessed in 85 (46%), cardiovascular outcomes were assessed in 76 (42%), cardiorespiratory outcomes were assessed in 39 (21%), muscle damage and swelling in 25 (14%), thermoregulatory outcomes were assessed in 19 (10%), and perceptual outcomes were assessed in 98 (54%).
Effects on Performance and Muscle Function
One-hundred and fifteen studies investigated the effects of compression garments on exercise performance and/or muscle function outcomes (Table S1 of the Electronic Supplementary Material [ESM]). The most common measures investigated were jump (36%, n = 41), sprint (22%, n = 25) and time trial (21%, n = 24) performance. A smaller portion of studies investigated performance metrics including agility (8%, n = 9), time to exhaustion (6%, n = 7), incremental exercise test performance (6%, n = 7), and distance travelled and speed (4%, n = 5). In addition, six studies investigated sports-specific performance metrics. The vast majority of studies reported no ergogenic effect of compression on jump, time trial/race, sprint, or agility performance. Nonetheless, there were a number of studies reporting beneficial effects on jump, time trial/race, sprint, and agility performance.
Evidence is equivocal as to whether garments improve physical performance, with little evidence supporting improvements in kinetic or kinematic outcomes. However, compression likely reduces muscle oscillatory properties and has a positive effect on sensorimotor systems, which may explain the reported beneficial effects on joint proprioception and repositioning sense.
Biomechanical and Neuromuscular Effects
Compression likely reduces muscle oscillatory properties and has a positive effect on sensorimotor systems, which may explain the reported beneficial effects on joint proprioception and repositioning sense. There’s a heightened sense of movement when you wear compression clothing, which helps you to adopt correct positions.
Cardiovascular and Cardiorespiratory Effects
Findings suggest potential increases in arterial blood flow; however, it is unlikely that compression garments meaningfully change metabolic responses, blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiorespiratory measures. Alternatively, it is unlikely that compression garments meaningfully alter metabolic responses, while blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiorespiratory measures are largely unchanged with their use.
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Thermoregulatory Effects
Compression garments increase localised skin temperature and may reduce perceptions of muscle soreness and pain following exercise; however, rating of perceived exertion during exercise is likely unchanged. Many compression garments are designed with materials that aid in temperature regulation, keeping the body cool in hot conditions and warm in colder environments. This thermoregulation feature is crucial for maintaining optimal body temperature during various activities, enhancing overall performance and comfort.
Perceptual Effects
Compression garments may reduce perceptions of muscle soreness and pain following exercise; however, rating of perceived exertion during exercise is likely unchanged.
Who is Using Compression Garments?
The majority of studies within this review investigated participants who were non-professional athletes (n = 175, 96%), while professional athletes (i.e. an athlete who earns their full time wage through their sport) were used in n = 8 (4%) [29-36]. Of the 183 studies included, 51 investigated mixed-sex cohorts, 110 investigated male participants only, and only 14 investigated female participants exclusively. Furthermore, eight studies did not state the sex of the participants [2, 58, 62, 87, 93, 102, 130, 188]. Finally, 167 studies involved adults with a mean reported age between 20 and 64 years, two studies investigated ‘older adults’ (i.e. participants with a mean age > 65 years), 11 studies investigated adolescents (i.e.
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Compression Garments
The inconsistencies in compression garment and exercise outcomes observed throughout the scientific literature are likely due to a number of methodological reasons. For example, research varies according to when the garments are worn (e.g. during exercise and/or recovery), the garment pressure and distribution, where compression is applied (e.g. upper body [torso and/or arms] vs lower body [knee/thigh/full length]), the level of competition at which the athlete/participant competes, the type of exercise performed, and the athlete’s belief in the product. Furthermore, considerations such as garment pressure have been estimated to be reported in only one third of the literature to date. This suggests that important methodological information that may influence outcomes is often overlooked.
Practical Considerations for Using Compression Tops
- Proper Fit: Make sure your compression clothing has a secure fit but is not too tight. It should feel like a second skin without restricting movement or circulation.
- Wearing Duration: Compression garments used for recovery or preparation shouldn't be used for prolonged periods, as the body adapts to its presence. Two to four hours is the optimum timeframe.
- Targeted Use: Choose garments that target your specific needs. For example, if you have issues with your legs, compression leggings might be ideal. The right compression clothes can be worn alone or layered under other clothing.
- Everyday Wear: While compression clothing is great for workouts, it's also beneficial for everyday activities. Wear compression shorts, for example, during walks, household chores, or even work to enjoy its benefits throughout the day.
- Care Instructions: Follow care instructions carefully to maintain the integrity of the compression fabric and weighted elements.
- Listen to Your Body: Pay attention to how your body responds to compression wear.
- Combine with Exercise: For maximum benefits, combine wearing compression clothing with a regular exercise routine.
Addressing Common Misconceptions
- Compression is not just for injured or inactive people: Compression wear benefits all aspects of a workout. It can be used before a workout, to increase the blood flow and speed up the warm up. During a workout, to ensure more controlled movement, less vibration of the muscles and to increase endurance. And also, after a workout, where the pressure increases the blood flow and helps the body get rid of waste products quicker. These effects can benefit any athlete or active person, regardless of level.
- Compression wear does not deactivate muscles: With compression wear you are supporting your muscles, not deactivating them. The support will help you perform better and achieve more precise movements.
- It's not dangerous to use compression wear too much: It’s not dangerous to use compression wear all the time, but in everyday situations you don’t really need increased stability and control of your movements. It’s more beneficial when working out, especially if you are trying to reach a certain goal. Using compression wear is just a way of helping the body to mobilize its muscles.
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