Before the advent of Instagram trends and DNA-based diets, the ancient Greeks, including figures like Alexander the Great, and Romans relied on diet as a cornerstone of healthcare. Their dietary wisdom, surprisingly, resonates with modern sensibilities. This article delves into the dietary habits of Alexander the Great and the broader nutritional landscape of ancient Greece, exploring the foods, eating customs, and the underlying philosophy that shaped their approach to health and well-being.
Ancient Wisdom on Diet and Health
Greek and Roman physicians understood the importance of personalized nutrition. They believed that people should be familiar with the nature of their own bodies and adjust their diets accordingly. The Roman writer Celsus emphasized that everyone should be familiar with their own body's nature. He believed that whether someone was inclined to gain weight or struggled to keep it on, or was prone to constipation, the most problematic part of their body should always receive the most attention, and diets should be adjusted accordingly.
Ancient ideas about diet were rooted in theories about how the body functioned. Most Greek and Roman doctors believed bodies existed on a spectrum of hot, cold, wet, and dry. From the Roman doctor Galen onwards, the properties of wet, dry, hot, and cold were believed to correspond to humors (or substances) in the body. Blood was hot and moist; phlegm was cold and moist; black bile was cold and dry; and yellow bile was hot and dry. As early as Hippocrates, it was believed that a deficiency or excess in one of these substances would lead to pain and disease. Exercise would heat the body, and diet could either cool or heat the body from within, depending on the substances.
Claire Bubb, Assistant Professor of Classical Literature and Science at the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World at NYU, explains that health could be found by keeping these properties in balance. She says the basic theory was that a patient suffering from a hot and dry disease would likely find relief in a cool and moist diet.
Many of the heating and cooling properties of foodstuff feel instinctive: lettuce and cucumbers are cooling, but arugula is heating because it is peppery. Meat is a heating food, particularly if it is prepared through roasting (which does not use liquid and utilizes higher temperatures in preparation). Crudites are cooling food and thus better reserved for summer, when the body needs to be cooled down.
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Galen claimed that as a young man, he successfully used lettuce for its cooling properties. Now that he was older, it had taken on a new use as a sleep aid. He wrote that the only remedy against insomnia for him was lettuce eaten in the evening. Diet was essential as a means of preventing illness. If a person needed to be cooled down, they should drink cold water, sleep, and eat acidic foods, according to Celsus in On Medicine. If they needed to be warmed up, they should eat salty, bitter, and meaty foods.
The Foundations of the Ancient Greek Diet
The ancient Greek diet was shaped by the terrain, climate, and agricultural practices of ancient Greece. It focused on natural, minimally processed foods that contributed to the athleticism and overall health of the Greeks. The ancient Greek diet consisted mainly of foods readily available from the local environment and agricultural practices of ancient Greece. The rocky, mountainous landscape and warm Mediterranean climate allowed ancient Greeks to grow fruits, vegetables, and herbs, and raise small livestock. With coastlines surrounded by the Mediterranean and Aegean seas, fish was also a major part of their diet.
The ancient Greeks did not have access to processed foods and sugars like we do today. As a result, their diet was based around whole, unrefined foods produced locally in Greece. The ancient Greek diet provided the fuel and nutrition needed for an active population while supporting general health and athletic capabilities.
Some key characteristics of the ancient Greek diet:
- Emphasis on vegetables, fruits, beans, grains, olive oil, fish, eggs, cheese, and yogurt
- Low consumption of red meat
- No refined sugars or processed foods
- Honey used sparingly as a sweetener
- Wine diluted with water for hydration
- Three main meals per day with dinner as the largest
This natural diet, along with active lifestyles, contributed to the athletic physiques and good health of the ancient Greeks.
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Main Foods in the Ancient Greek Diet
Vegetables
Fresh vegetables made up a major part of the ancient Greek diet. Common vegetables included cabbage, onions, garlic, turnips, radishes, carrots, parsley, and spinach. Leafy greens like chard, beetroot leaves, and dandelion greens were also eaten.
Fruits
Orchards of fig, olive, apple, and pear trees could be found throughout ancient Greece. Fresh figs, olives, apples, and pears would have been frequently eaten and also dried for storage.
Beans and Legumes
Beans, peas, chickpeas, broad beans, and lentils provided an affordable source of protein in the ancient Greek diet.
Grains
Wheat and barley were the most important grains in ancient Greece. They were eaten as bread, baked goods, porridge, or added to soups. Millet was also a common grain and used to make unleavened bread.
Olive Oil
Olive oil was the primary source of fat in the ancient Greek diet. Olive trees grew abundantly in Greece, and olive oil was used for cooking, dressings, and to flavor foods.
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Fish and Seafood
As a seafaring culture, fish and seafood like tuna, mackerel, sea bass, red mullet, octopus, and mussels featured regularly in ancient Greek meals. Fish sauce called garum added flavor to dishes.
Eggs and Dairy
Eggs from chickens, quail, and other fowl were commonly eaten. Goat and sheep milk was more prevalent than cow’s milk. Soft cheeses included feta and goat cheese. A cottage cheese-like food called oxygala was also eaten.
Meat and Poultry
Meat was less common than plant-based foods in the ancient Greek diet. Pork and mutton were the most prevalent meats. Chicken became more common later on. Goat and venison were also eaten. Only the wealthy could afford beef and lamb regularly.
Fruits, Nuts and Honey
Fresh and dried fruits like figs, grapes, apples, pears and olives provided sweetness. Almonds, walnuts and pistachios were prized nuts. Honey provided natural sweetness in desserts and baked goods.
Herbs, Spices and Flavorings
Mint, dill, thyme, oregano, garlic, cumin, mustard, fennel and sesame seeds added flavor to ancient Greek cooking. Vinegar, wine and garum (fermented fish sauce) also added flavor.
Wine
Wine was frequently consumed at meals, but it was always diluted with water. Undiluted wine was seen as uncivilized. The diluted wine provided hydration, calories and flavor.
Meals and Eating Habits in Ancient Greece
The ancient Greeks ate three meals per day - breakfast, lunch and the main meal, dinner.
Breakfast
Breakfast was usually light and often consisted of bread dipped in wine. Barley bread was most common. The bread and wine combination provided carbs, protein, hydration and some antioxidants to start the day. They also ate something called a teganites (τηγανίτης), which would have resembled a pancake. These were made with wheat flour, olive oil, honey and curdled milk and were usually topped with honey or cheese. Sometimes leftovers from the previous night’s dinner or foods like figs, olives, cheese or yogurt composed breakfast.
Lunch
Lunch was a light midday meal eaten after the morning’s work. It often included bread, olives, cheese, figs, nuts, fruit, salted fish or vegetables. The lighter lunch fueled afternoon labors and kept ancient Greeks from getting drowsy. These small plates of different foods I believe transformed into what Greeks have today - mezedes. It’s like tapas in Spain. A collection of small dishes or appetizers.
Dinner
After a long days work, the appetite had grown and now it was time to really eat. This was and still is in Greece, the most important meal of the day. This was the time they would gather with friends and discuss philosophy and their daily events. Notice that I said friends and not family. This is because men and women normally ate separately. If they had slaves the slaves would serve the men dinner first, then the women, and then themselves. If they did not have slaves, the women of the house served the men first, and then themselves after the men were done.
At dinner, the Ancient Greeks would eat: eggs (from quail and hens), fish, legumes, olives, cheeses, breads, figs, and any vegetables they could grow and were in season. Such as: arugula, asparagus, cabbage, carrots, and cucumbers. Any type of red meat was reserved for the wealthy since it was harder to come by as say the fish from the sea. Therefore, many Greeks lived a full life having only ever had red meat a handful of times. It wasn’t all bad however, as the mediterranean lifestyle limits meat to a few times a month, so in reality, the lower class was healthier than the upper class.
Desserts
Dessert was not a daily thing in Ancient Greece and reserved for festivals or special occasions. Since sugar wasn’t known to the Ancient Greeks, honey was the main sweetener. Therefore, they consumed things like cheese drizzled with honey, or figs and olives with honey. Basically, foods topped with honey were the most common type of dessert.
Snacks
Nuts, fruits and bread served as on-the-go snacks for ancient Greeks. Street vendors also sold foods like chickpeas, lentil soups, figs and skewers of fried fish. Sesame bread rings called pastilli provided morning snacks with wine.
Cooking Methods
Boiling, baking, frying and stewing were common cooking methods. Grilling, spit roasting and cooking over coals were also used. Olive oil was central for frying, baking and dressing foods.
Dining Customs
The ancient Greeks ate while seated or reclined. Food was served on low tables. Spoons were used for soups and knives eventually gained acceptance. Fingers handled most foods. The wine and water mix was usually a 3:1 ratio. Getting drunk was looked down upon - wine was meant to be enjoyed in moderation with food.
Regional Differences
Coastal Greeks ate more fish and seafood. Inland regions consumed more meat and poultry. Religious fasting practices also impacted regional food customs. The wealthy enjoyed more meat while common people ate more grains, legumes and vegetables.
Key Aspects of the Ancient Greek Diet and Cuisine
Local and Seasonal Foods
The ancient Greek diet was shaped by the local terrain and agricultural practices. Their cuisine relied heavily on what foods were grown, raised and caught nearby in each season. Transporting exotic foods from abroad was expensive and not realistic. This reliance on local, seasonal foods provided superior freshness and nutrition in the ancient Greek diet.
Focus on Natural, Minimally Processed Foods
The ancient Greeks ate a whole foods diet centered around natural ingredients like vegetables, fruits, beans, grains, olive oil, eggs, cheese and fish. The diet contained far less meat than modern standards. There were no processed sugars or convenience foods. This foundation of minimally processed foods contributed to overall health.
Balance of Plant and Animal Products
The ancient Greek diet provided balance between plant-based and animal-based foods. Staple plant foods included grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, nuts and olive oil. Cheese, eggs, fish and limited poultry and meat made up the animal products. This balance provided adequate protein and a range of essential nutrients.
Olive Oil as the Primary Fat
Olive oil was the main source of fat in the ancient Greek diet. Rich in monounsaturated fats and antioxidants, olive oil provided healthy fats that supported heart health. Olive oil was used liberally in cooking, baking and dressings.
Wine Culture
Besides water, wine was the main drink of the Ancient Greeks. It was so important to them that they even had a Greek god of wine - Dionysos (Διόνυσος). Wine was served at all meals and during the day. The Greeks made red, white, rose, and port style wines. The main areas of production being Thásos, Lesbos and Chios.
The Ancient Greeks did not drink wine to get impaired. It was considered bad to get/be drunk. They were meant to enjoy the wine for what is was and not for what it could do if one had too many. During the Ancient Greek symposium (συμπόσιον from sympinein, “to drink together”) the leader of the event, called a symposiarch would dilute the wine and determine how strong it would be. If people got out of hand and became intoxicated, they were the talk of the town and not looked favorably upon. It was a social event.
Ancient Greeks did not drink wine straight. It was considered barbaric to do so. Instead, all wine was cut with water so people would not get inebriated.
Active Lifestyles
The ancient Greeks lived active lifestyles, walking extensively and performing physical work. Athletic competitions were also integral to society. This high activity level paired with their wholesome diet supported fit physiques.
Importance of Mealtimes
Shared meals were vital to ancient Greek culture for dining, socializing and philosophical discussions. Their healthy diet was enjoyed alongside rich social connections.
Alexander the Great and Diet
While specific details of Alexander the Great's personal diet are scarce, we can infer that he likely followed the general dietary patterns of the time, with adjustments based on his status and physical demands. As a member of the elite, he would have had access to a wider variety of foods, including meats, though these were still consumed in moderation compared to modern diets.
Given his active lifestyle as a military leader and athlete, Alexander would have required a diet that provided sufficient energy and nutrients. This likely included a balance of grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and some animal products. Wine, diluted with water, would have been a regular part of his meals, enjoyed in moderation as a social custom.
Dietary Disagreements and Quirks
Ancient experts disagreed about ingredients like lentils. Lentils were valorized by Stoic philosophers like Zeno of Citium and Musonius Rufus, for whom diet was very much about self-restraint and avoiding the excesses of fancy foreign foods. In On Keeping Well, the Greek writer Plutarch argued that no one should stray too far from a simple diet of lentils because “less expensive things are always healthier for the body.” But for many Roman doctors, Bubb said, lentils were viewed as very unhealthy. Dioscorides claimed in his Medical Substances that “the lentil, when eaten steadily, causes dim sightedness, poor digestion, stomachache, gas…and constipation in the bowels.”
Similarly, while most people praised the merits of cabbage as a kind of miracle cure-all, others disagreed. “Cabbage,” wrote Cato the Elder, a Roman statesman and the author of a work On Farming, “is the vegetable that surpasses all others.” Writing three centuries later, Galen disagreed and wrote in On the Properties of Foodstuffs that it “is emphatically not a wholesome food, like lettuce is, but has a pernicious and bad-smelling juice.”
Fasting and Good Fats
Some aspects of ancient dietary advice cohere surprisingly well with modern lifestyle trends and philosophies. As early as the fifth century BCE, Hippocratic texts advised people to try intermittent fasting (one meal a day was common), cross-training by sailing, hunting, and walking on varied terrain, and eating a high-fat diet (think butter, sheep’s cheese, and olive oil) to lose weight. “Dishes should be high in fat,” wrote Hippocrates “so that [the dieter] feels satiated after the smallest amount.” Today scientists agree that, in a controlled environment, fat does have an effect on satiety.