In 1924, a notable trend emerged in both France and America: calorie counting. This approach to dieting, rooted in scientific principles, gained popularity as individuals sought to manage their weight and conform to evolving beauty standards.
The Rise of Calorie Counting
Following World War I, a significant shift in fashion occurred, prompting women to explore various weight loss methods, including thyroid extracts, exercise, and specialized rolling pins. Calorie counting emerged as a seemingly foolproof and "scientific" method for weight loss.
Scientific Origins of the Calorie
The concept of the calorie, derived from the French term for "unit of heat," originated with Nicolas Clément-Desormes in 1824. Over subsequent decades, European scientists measured the energy value of foods and how animals and humans expended that energy. They utilized bomb calorimeters to determine the energy content of foods by burning them in insulated vessels and measuring temperature changes in the surrounding water.
In the 1860s, German physiologist Max von Pettenkofer and his associate Carl von Voit conducted experiments using a respiration calorimeter to analyze how the body converted proteins, carbohydrates, and fats into energy. Their research provided insights into the heat each type of nutrient supplied upon metabolism.
Calorie Counting in America
Wilbur Olin Atwater, an American chemist and physiologist, played a crucial role in introducing calorie counting to the United States. Inspired by the work of German physiologists, Atwater calculated the energy values of numerous foods and determined people's calorie requirements based on activity levels. His work contributed to the inclusion of calories in World War I food conservation campaigns.
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Home Economics and the Calorie
World War I coincided with the professionalization of home economics, a field that sought to apply scientific principles to homemaking. Promoting calorie knowledge aligned with this movement, as it transformed food provisioning into a scientific endeavor.
Dieting Trends Among Women
Calorie counting gained traction during a period when white women from privileged classes were increasingly focused on dieting. The associations of plumpness with beauty, health, and wealth prevalent in the 19th century were overturned, and the slender flapper became the beauty ideal. Women began restricting their food intake.
Tools for Self-Surveillance
The widespread availability of public and private scales facilitated constant self-monitoring, making dieters aware of even minor weight fluctuations. Penny scales in department store bathrooms became popular, reflecting the intense focus on weight management.
The Allure of Thinness
The pursuit of thinness among American women in the 1920s coincided with the association of the thin female body with privilege. Influenced by Thorstein Veblen's Theory of the Leisure Class, women sought to define their bodies as "decorative" and convey their exemption from productive labor.
Lulu Hunt Peters: The Calorie Popularizer
Lulu Hunt Peters, a physician, became a prominent advocate for calorie counting. Through her syndicated column and diet guides, Peters emphasized the importance of understanding and managing calorie consumption for weight control. Her book, Diet and Health with Key to the Calories, sold millions of copies, making calorie counting a household concept.
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Peters encouraged dieters to reimagine food as calories and provided guidance on calculating calorie needs for weight loss. Her assertive approach resonated with many, transforming dieting into a more scientific and seemingly foolproof endeavor.
Resistance to the Dieting Culture
Despite the popularity of calorie counting, some individuals voiced concerns about the potential negative effects of excessive dieting. Critics warned of the risks to physical and mental well-being, but their voices were largely overshadowed by the growing cult of thinness.
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